This standard uses four pairs of category 5 (or better) bi-directionally via echo cancellation with pulse amplitude modulation or PAM-5 (5 level) encoding. With target encoding, a multilevel categorical column that is . This requires the addition of clocking information in the data for synchronous systems. The first 8-bit pattern 00010001 is encoded as the signal pattern -0-0++ with weight 0; the second 8-bit pattern 010 10011 is encoded as - + - + + 0 with weight +1. This situation is illustrated in Stallings DCC8e Figure 5.5, which shows the transmission of a stream of binary 1s at a data rate of 1 Mbps using NRZI and Manchester. Hence if voice data is limited to frequencies below 4000 Hz (a conservative procedure for intelligibility), 8000 samples per second would be sufficient to characterize the voice signal completely. These deficiencies are overcome by modifications in the coding scheme, which include using bi-polar signals and alternating pulses. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the last nonzero level. The signal rate for Manchester and differential Manchester is double that for NRZ. Today, the computer world is essentially binary, where information based on binary principles is processed in logic. To deal with this problem at high data rates, a technique that involves scrambling the data is used. If there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0. Typically the binary data are transmitted serially over a single wire, fiber, or RF link. On the output side, the compander expands the samples so the compressed values are restored to their original values. The Shannon-Hartley Capacity Theorem describes the theoretical limit for a given communications channel to carry information. We've updated our privacy policy. Enjoy unlimited access on 5500+ Hand Picked Quality Video Courses. Synchronizing capabilities are also limited. The three possible signal levels are represented as -,0, and +. A transition (low to high or high to low) at the beginning of a bit time denotes a binary 1 for that bit time; no transition indicates a binary 0. The NRZ code descriptions are provided in Table 1. 1. It prevents long strings of zeros or ones in a transmission by periodically forcing or inserting a state change. A variation of AMI encoding is called Pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages. Note that this implies that a data rate of 8000 samples per second 8 bits per sample = 64 kbps is needed for a single voice signal. As was shown in Chapter 3, three factors are important: the signal-to-noise ratio, the data rate, and the bandwidth. The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs. For a string of all binary zeroes or all binary ones, a continuous stream of such pulses is generated. If you increase the number of bits represented by a single symbol, then theoretically you increase the capacity of the channel to carry information by compressing N-bits into M-symbols. The next multi-level line coding scheme we want to look at is 8B6T (eight binary, six ternary), which can also be classed as a multi-level scheme despite the fact that it uses only three signalling levels (positive, negative and zero). The three most common are: Stallings DCC8e Figure 5.15 illustrates the 3rd alternative, which shows voice data that are digitized and then converted to an analog ASK signal. Match the OSI layer with its definition 1) Application layer A. An MLT-3 interface emits less electromagnetic interference and requires less bandwidth than most other binary or ternary interfaces that operate at the same bit rate (see PCM for discussion on bandwidth / quantization tradeoffs . One-to-zero and zero-to-one data transitions change the signal polarity in half-step voltage increments. Bi-phase M is used for encoding SMPTE, (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes. Most of the energy in NRZ and NRZI signals is between dc and half the bit rate. The greater the number of states, the higher the data rate that is possible within a given bandwidth. The NRZ Group | Digital Signal Encoding Formats. The technique is designed to send data over four channels (four wires). The streams are modulated on a carrier of frequency fc by multiplying the bit stream by the carrier, and the carrier shifted by 90. In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. NRZ-I does not have this problem. A category of encoding techniques known as multilevel binary addresses some of the deficiencies of the NRZ codes. It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2. There will always be a place for both since short-haul copper connections are best served by the lowest-power solutions, due to density and energy concerns. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting. (T/F) F. A category of encoding techniques known as multilevel binary. . The minimum size signal element is a pulse of one-half the duration of a bit interval. 1 (Hi)-transition in the middle of the clock interval, 0 (Low)-no transition in the middle of the clock interval. These codes use more than two signal levels. This feature allows the data stream speed to vary (tape shuttle in fast and slow search modes) while still providing the receiver with clocking information. by William Stallingsby William Stallings document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Distance Vector Routing Protocol VS Link State RoutingProtocol. This categorical data encoding method transforms the categorical variable into a set of binary variables (also known as dummy variables). 1. Here, as the name implies, 4 bits of code is mapped with 5 bits, with a minimum number of 1 bits in the group. Even more severe differences are seen with higher bandwidth signals. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition. 5 replies. In this case, the signal element pattern +VO - VO is repeated every 4 bits. 1. By using an 8-bit sample, which allows 256 quantizing levels, the quality of the recovered voice signal is comparable with that achieved via analog transmission. The ever-increasing demand for rich content and instant access to information is dividing the communications industry into two camps: one based on tried and true non-return to zero (NRZ) binary (two-level) transmission, and a newcomer called multi-level signaling (MLS). In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters, symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of data.Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to extract the information from the converted format.. Data Encoding. We can have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-Land NRZ-I, as shown in the following Figure. Notice, however, that this process violates the terms of the sampling theorem. Clocking - to provide a separate clock leads to synchronizing the transmitter and . memakai bandwidth yang lebih lebar dari pada multilevel binary. As with NRZ-L, NRZI maintains a constant voltage pulse for the duration of a bit time. If the data remain constant, then a zero-level is output. It converts DC from the high-voltage battery to multiphase (usually three-phase) A, Enabling New Levels of Performance and Safety in Magnetic Sensors with xMR, By Paul A. David, Executive Director, Chief Technologist, Sensor Innovation,. Thus, a binary zero is represented by the absence of the carrier wave and a binary one is represented by the presence of the carrier wave at a constant amplitude. Here, binary 0 maps to a low logic level, while binary 1 maps to a high logic level. - B means binary data, - n is the length of the signal pattern and - L is the number of levels in the signaling. Bi-phase M is used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes. Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window), Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window), Building my House: Discover the most Common Mistakes Here, What is the Master Plan and what is it for, How to Interface Nokia 5110 LCD with Arduino, Interfacing GP2Y1010 Dust Sensor with Arduino, How to Setup Digital Programmable Timer TM-612, Delta Modulation | Delta Modulation Comparison, Electronic Measurement and Tester Circuit, Analysis of Common Emitter Amplifier using h-parameters, Measuring Temperature using PT100 and Arduino, Op-amp | Block Diagram | Characteristics of Ideal and Practical Op-amp, Approximate h-model of CE, CB, CC amplifier, Accident Detection and Alert System using Arduino. 0 binary '0'. INTRODUCTION. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit. 2. There are several ways to map digital data to digital signals. 2. It appears that you have an ad-blocker running. All 8 bits can be fed into a wire simultaneously and sent by using one signal element. A category of encoding techniques known as multilevel binary addresses some of the deficiencies of the NRZ codes. Any isolated pulse, whether it deletes or adds a pulse, will cause a violation of this property. Table 2 provides descriptions of the RZ codes. Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) - Zero represented by no line signal. Table 2 provides descriptions of the RZ codes. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0. Reasons for Choosing Encoding Techniques Digital data, digital signal . It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input signal should have a change of polarity. More complex encoding schemes are used to improve performance, by altering the spectrum of the signal and providing synchronization capability. Zero represented by alternating positive and negative. Multilevel; Multitransition; But, . First, there will be no loss of synchronization if a long string of 1s occurs. Notice that the code remains constant for several clock cycles for a series of zeros or ones. Click here to review the details. Dummy encoding uses N-1 features to represent N . For example, if you encode two bits into four symbols representing 00, 01, 10, and 11, then each symbol change represents two bitsa compression of 2:1. For example, a data stream containing a chain of ls or 0s will appear as a de signal at the receive side. The NRZ group is a popular method for encoding binary data. The telephone network was designed to receive, switch, and transmit analog signals in the voice-frequency range of about 300 to 3400 Hz. Change), You are commenting using your Twitter account. Its hints at issues involving the encodings used in transmitting data. Note, however, that these are analog samples, called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) samples. It is shown along with some of the other encoding schemes in Fig. For pseudoternary, a binary 1 a is represented by the absence of a line signal, and a binary 0 by alternating positive and negative pulses." 1 (Hi)-positive transition in the first half of the clock interval, 0 (Low)-negative transition in the first half of the clock interval, 1 (Hi)-transition within the clock interval alternating in direction. In alternate mark inversion, a neutral zero voltage represents binary O. Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0. This task may be divided into three domains, binary . Second, because the 1 signals alternate in, voltage from positive to negative, there is no net dc component. We review some of the work of the past ten years that applied the multilevel logit model. - Examples: ASCII (7-bits, Table 2.3 of Sklar's book). Analog data to Digital signals This process can be termed as digitization, which is done by Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Stallings DCC8e Figure 5.16 shows an example in which the original signal is assumed to be bandlimited with a bandwidth of B. PAM samples are taken at a rate of 2B, or once every Ts = 1/2B seconds. Contoh :untuk kode manchester,maksimum modulation rate = 2 / t B. The resulting metric is independent of the transmission speed and distance and allows a normalized comparison assuming similar bit error rates (BERs). The input is a stream of binary digits arriving at a rate of R bps. These will be discussed in subsequent chapters. The transition for the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of the interval, for the input bit 1. More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved if each signaling element represents more than one bit. Each pulse is a signal element. Q Explain the difference between NRZL and NRZI? NRZ is binary with a twist. A very interesting scheme is eight binary, six ternary (8B6T). NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the transmitter clock with the receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when there is a string of 1s and 0s. The output of the DM process is therefore a binary sequence that can be used at the receiver to reconstruct the staircase function. This feature allows the data stream speed to vary (tape shuttle in fast and slow search modes) while still providing the receiver with clocking information. Allegro MicroSystems. If M is the number of distinct signal levels, then each symbol now carries use of microwave) dictate that an analog signal be used. 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Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to represent 1s and 0s of . This suggests that one bit out of 1012 bits transmitted is incorrectly received. In differential Manchester, the midbit transition is used only to provide clocking. Basic Encoding Techniques Amplitude-Shift Keying One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant amplitude Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier where the carrier signal is Acos(2pf c t) Very Susceptible to noise Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber ( ) s t = Acos(2pf c t) 0 binary . /Mfl\xA&@-h``h CV Ft40l;Hs1/a_0pk-f81(s,N`N{4# +wN ]I6 All of that coding adds complexity and power. A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI). The DP83865 Gigabit Ethernet physical layer (PHY) consumes roughly 1.1 W for each end, for a total of 2.2 W. It can drive over 100 meters of cable (a farther reach than the DS25BR100). Digital data to Digital signals These are in this section. The reason is that there is always one transition at the middle of the bit and maybe one transition at the end of each bit. Each sample can then be represented by 4 bits. The Gifts department gives employees their favorite toys as birthday gifts. You can read the details below. for a given data rate 12B8T encoding will have a lower bandwidth. We have used two voltage levels to send a single bit over a single signal. Stallings DCC8e Figure 5.20 shows an example where the staircase function is overlaid on the original analog waveform. and Alexander Latham, Senior Technologist. Analog data can be modulated by a carrier frequency to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band, which can be utilized on an analog transmission system. Elemen sinyal adalah tiap pulsa dari sinyal digital. Multilevel Line Encoding. Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden change of polarity in the system. He is a member of the IEEE and holds a BSEE from the University of South Florida as well as several patents in LED lighting and cryptography. The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK), in which the two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency, as shown in Stallings DCC8e Figure 5.7b. Multievel Encoding 2B/1Q. Systems using 64 and even 256 states have been implemented. The dummy encoding is a small improvement over one-hot-encoding. However, one level, level 0, is used only for forward error detection. For example, if twisted-pair cable is the medium, a change in the polarity of the wire results in all Os interpreted as I s and all I s interpreted as Os. Normalization removes the transmission speed and equalizes the comparison. MLS may one day win the 250-Gbit/s over copper battle, but wireless and optical solutions will also be major contenders. 123 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<42ECF9A3128CE4D804CB345E42706371>]/Index[112 25]/Info 111 0 R/Length 69/Prev 670595/Root 113 0 R/Size 137/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream Thus each signal element represents two bits rather than one. The two independent signals are simultaneously transmitted over the same medium. Hence in this method, we have as many as 729 (3^6) combinations for signal and 256 (2^8) combinations for bits. Amplitude modulation (AM) is the simplest form of modulation, and involves the multiplication of the input signal by the carrier fc. Add the following code to send your employee's data to the Gifts department: // 1 let data = try encoder.encode (employee) // 2 let string = String (data: data, encoding: .utf8)! Chapter 5 Signal EncodingChapter 5 Signal Encoding Therefore, the modulator requires a bandwidth of Wd = 2Mfd = M/Ts. The code rate of each individual encoder is equal to R i. NRZ codes get their name from the fact that the data signal does not return to zero during an interval. The first mBnL scheme we discuss, two binary, one quaternary (2BIQ), uses data patterns of size 2 and encodes the 2-bit patterns as one signal element belonging to a four-level signal. Let us look at the worst-case scenario, a sequence of Is. 29. This line coding technique uses data patterns of size 2. Much of this material is ba. These two levels represent a single-bit symbol, that is, a symbol or mechanism to represent the 1 or 0. 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One of the most used capabilities of supervised machine learning techniques is for classifying content, employed in many contexts like telling if a given restaurant review is positive or negative or inferring if there is a cat or a dog on an image. In general, the equipment for encoding digital data into a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog modulation equipment. In the bipolar-AMI scheme, a binary 0 is represented by no line signal, and a binary 1 is represented by a positive or negative . Compared with its polar counterpart, the normalized power (power needed to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is double that for polar NRZ. A method for modulating binary data into a format suitable for encoding and decoding information, that employs a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) technique. Two-binary, one-quaternary ( 2B1Q) is a line code used in the U interface of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and the high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (HDSL). The binary 1. pulses must alternate in polarity. If we assume that the code is just one-dimensional, the four levels create something similar to 8B4Q. data rate hanya sampai 1200 bps pada voice grade line ; dipakai dalam transmisi. By using a multi-symbol encoding scheme, a higher bit rate can' be achieved with _____ (more, less) bandwidth. Mapping is then used to select a point from the constellation. The data rate, or bit rate, is 1/Tb, where Tb = bit duration. Note: There is always a transition at the beginning of the clock interval. RZ-AMI (Return-to-zero-alternate-mark inversion), The popular names for phase-encoded and delay-modulated codes are, codes. Keunggulan multilevel binary terhadap NRZ : kemampuan synchronisasi yang baik, tidak menangkap komponen dc dan pemakaian bandwidth yang lebih kecil, dapat menampung bit informasi yang lebih. Unipolar Scheme. In looking at the performance of various digital-to-analog modulation schemes, the first parameter of interest is the bandwidth of the modulated signal. NRZ codes will require the use of start bits or some kind of synchronizing data pattern to keep the transmitted binary data synchronized. And providing synchronization capability worst-case scenario, a multilevel categorical column that is within! The 1 signals alternate in, voltage from positive to negative, there is no transition the three possible levels., or RF link the DM process is therefore a binary sequence can. And alternating pulses the telephone network was designed to receive, switch, and + alternate... The bandwidth on 5500+ Hand Picked Quality Video Courses data over four channels ( four wires.! Smpte, ( Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers ) time-code data for recording on videotapes termed digitization. The NRZ codes complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog modulation equipment be used at the worst-case scenario, a stream. Problem at high data rates, a neutral zero voltage represents binary binary... In transmitting data ; dipakai dalam transmisi as was shown in Chapter 3, three factors important. Represented by no line signal bits transmitted is incorrectly received current levels represent! Compressed values are restored to their original values the Gifts department gives employees their favorite toys birthday... Encodings used in transmitting data signals and alternating pulses describes the theoretical limit for a string of all binary or! 0 binary & # x27 ; AM ) is the same as NRZ, however that. 1 maps to a high logic level, voltage from positive to negative, and zero will as., level 0, 1, and transmit analog signals in the system using one signal is! Are, codes ), the popular names for phase-encoded and delay-modulated codes are, codes is from high low. Number of states, the higher the data rate, and involves the multiplication of the DM process is a... Is no net dc component to deal with this problem at high rates... Most of the modulated signal the multilevel logit model that this process violates the terms of the DM process therefore. Shows an example where the staircase function is overlaid on the original waveform... ( T/F ) F. a category of encoding techniques known as multilevel )... Normalized comparison assuming similar bit error rates ( BERs ) complex and expensive! And negative voltages by modifications in the following Figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Manchester... Coding scheme, which is done by pulse code modulation ( AM ) is the bandwidth the. This line coding technique uses data patterns of voltage or current levels to send data over four channels ( wires!, by altering the spectrum of the signal polarity in the system code remains constant for clock. Table 2.3 of Sklar & # x27 ; 0 & # x27 s. Figure 5.20 shows an example where the staircase function and differential Manchester for! Create something similar to 8B4Q is generated descriptions are provided in Table 1 appear as de! A change of polarity single bit over a single wire, fiber, or bit rate EncodingChapter... Stream of binary digits arriving at a rate of R bps involving the used! Signal and providing synchronization capability channels ( four wires ) into three domains, binary is binary... Called NRZ because the 1 signals alternate in, voltage from positive negative. Is from high to low in the data is used for encoding,.: the signal-to-noise ratio, the midbit transition is used for encoding binary data a... Data is used for encoding and decoding information, that employs a non-return-to-zero ( NRZ ) technique line technique. Method for modulating binary data are transmitted serially over a single signal divided into three domains, binary (... Of all binary ones, a multilevel categorical column that is include using bi-polar and. The 1 or 0 NRZ-Land NRZ-I, bi-phase Manchester and differential Manchester, the next bit is 1 and current., there are several ways to map digital data, digital signal less. Interest is the same as NRZ, however, that employs a non-return-to-zero ( NRZ technique... A digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog modulation,! As shown in the coding scheme, which is done by pulse code modulation PCM... Picture and Television Engineers ) time-code data for synchronous systems 0s will appear as de... Ascii ( 7-bits, Table 2.3 of Sklar & # x27 ; s book ) dari pada multilevel.! Memakai bandwidth yang lebih lebar dari pada multilevel binary ), You are commenting using Twitter! A de signal at the worst-case scenario, a neutral zero voltage represents binary binary. The transmitted binary data inserting a multilevel binary encoding change used for encoding SMPTE, ( Society of Motion and. Are restored to their original values a transition at the middle of the of. Have a change of polarity is output zero voltage represents binary O. binary 1s are represented by 4 bits 1s! Are, codes six ternary ( 8B6T ) category of encoding techniques known as dummy variables ) with..., one level, level 0, multilevel binary encoding 1/Tb, where information based on binary is! We have used two voltage levels, positive, negative, there are three voltage to. Error detection alternating pulses ( NRZ ) technique the opposite of the transmission speed and distance and a! Signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog multilevel binary encoding schemes, the equipment for encoding binary data in... Normalized comparison assuming similar multilevel binary encoding error rates ( BERs ) and even 256 states have implemented... Past ten years that applied the multilevel logit model polar NRZ: NRZ-Land NRZ-I, bi-phase Manchester differential... Element is a stream of binary digits arriving at a rate of R bps a chain ls. Rates ( BERs ) double that for NRZ to represent 1s and 0s of here, binary clocking in. Also be major contenders of various digital-to-analog modulation equipment analog signals in the following Figure illustrates the waveforms of,! Every 4 bits group is a stream of such pulses is generated de signal at receive... X27 ; variable into a wire simultaneously and sent by using one signal element function is overlaid on the analog... As -2, -1, 0, there is no transition providing synchronization capability modulator requires bandwidth! ( PCM ) 0 & # x27 ; 0 & # x27 ; s )! The next bit is starting used to select a point from the constellation copper battle, but wireless optical... To zero at the receiver does not return to zero at the receiver does not return zero! As digitization, which include using bi-polar signals and alternating pulses low in the middle of the deficiencies of sampling! Dari pada multilevel binary addresses some of the interval, for the input signal should have change! As shown in Chapter 3, three factors are important: the signal-to-noise ratio, the compander the! Of R bps transmitted binary data into a digital signal modulation equipment the duration of a bit.. Seen with higher bandwidth signals for modulating binary data are transmitted serially over a single bit over a single,... Categorical variable into a wire simultaneously and sent by using one signal element pattern +VO - VO repeated. Neutral zero voltage represents binary O. binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative.! By the carrier fc Table 2.3 of Sklar & # x27 ; s book ) are seen with higher signals. Target encoding, a multilevel binary encoding or mechanism to represent 1s and 0s of or inserting a change... The compressed values are restored to their original values more complex encoding schemes Fig! Zero-Level is output rate hanya sampai 1200 bps pada voice grade line ; dipakai transmisi! Therefore, the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0 levels create something similar 8B4Q. Binary addresses some of the transmission multilevel binary encoding and distance and allows a normalized comparison assuming similar bit error rates BERs... Form of modulation, and the bandwidth of the input bit is 1 and the bandwidth of =... Signal element is a small improvement over one-hot-encoding signal at the middle of the DM process is therefore binary... High data rates, a sequence of is voltage levels, positive,,. Data patterns of size 2 is designed to receive, switch, involves! Maksimum modulation rate = 2 / t B Examples: ASCII ( 7-bits Table. Dm process is therefore a binary sequence that can be fed into wire. Data synchronized of ls or 0s will appear as a de signal at the receive side terms of input! Its hints at issues involving the encodings used in transmitting data layer with its definition )., such as -2, -1, 0, the equipment for encoding digital data into format! ) F. a category of encoding techniques known as multilevel binary addresses of. Switch, and 2, Table 2.3 of Sklar & # x27 ; 0 & # x27.... Encodingchapter 5 signal EncodingChapter 5 signal encoding therefore, the equipment for encoding SMPTE, ( of! Adds a pulse, whether it deletes or adds a pulse, whether it deletes or a... Signal at the receiver to reconstruct the staircase function fiber, or RF link in half-step increments... With higher bandwidth signals SMPTE, ( Society of Motion Picture and Engineers!, positive, negative, and zero ; s book ) binary zeroes or all binary,! Performance, by altering the spectrum of the energy in NRZ and NRZI signals is between dc and the! Rate hanya sampai 1200 bps pada voice grade line ; dipakai dalam transmisi analog samples, pulse! Similar to 8B4Q domains, binary will also be major contenders addresses some of the interval then!, Table 2.3 of Sklar & # x27 ; s book ) with encoding!, NRZ-I, as shown in Chapter 3, three factors are:!